Collegium Invisibile,Standard Chartered PLC,Norman Chan Tak-Lam,Invisible College,New Atlantis,Hartlib Circle,Bensalemites

Historiography of the Royal Society

For more details on this topic, see Hartlib Circle § Foundation of the Royal Society.
For more details on this topic, see Gresham College and the formation of the Royal Society.
Lauren Kassell, writing for the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography,[13] notes that the group of natural philosophers meeting in London from 1645 was identified as the "invisible college" by Thomas Birch, writing in the 18th century; this identification then became orthodox, for example in the first edition Dictionary of National Biography.[14] This other group, later centred on Wadham College, Oxford and John Wilkins, was centrally concerned in the founding of the Royal Society; and Boyle became part of it in the 1650s. It is more properly called "the men of Gresham",[15] from its connection with Gresham College in London.
It is the identification of the Gresham group with the "invisible college" that is now generally queried by scholars. Christopher Hill writes that the Gresham group was convened in 1645 by Theodore Haak in Samuel Foster's rooms in Gresham College; and notes Haak's membership of the Hartlib Circle and Comenian connections, while also distinguishing the two groups.[16] Haak is mentioned as convener in an account by John Wallis, who talks about a previous group containing many physicians who then came to Foster's rooms; but Wallis's account is generally seen to be somewhat at variance with the history provided by Thomas Sprat of the Royal Society.[17]
The concept of invisible college was developed in the sociology of science by Diane Crane (1972) building on Derek J. de Solla Price's work on citation networks. It is related, but significantly different, from other concepts of expert communities, such as 'Epistemic communities' (Haas, 1992) or Community of Practice (Wenger, 1998). Recently, the concept was applied to the global network of communications among scientists by Caroline S. Wagner in The New Invisible College: Science for Development (Brookings 2008). It was also referred to in Clay Shirky's book Cognitive Surplus.
In fiction it is mentioned in the novel The Lost Symbol by Dan Brown, "Foucault's Pendulum" by Umberto Eco, and was the inspiration for the Unseen University in the works of Terry Pratchett.

Collegium Invisibile is an academic society in Poland, founded in 1995, that affiliates outstanding Polish students in humanities with distinguished scholars in accordance with the idea of liberal education.[1] The association aims at offering young scholars the opportunity to participate in original research projects as well as exclusive individual master-student cooperation through the tutorial system based on methods used in the Oxbridge universities.[2]
Collegium has its roots in the tradition of the 18th century Collegium Nobilium, an elite high-school founded in 1740, one of the predecessors of Warsaw University. Traditionally, the Rector of the University is ex officio the Chairman of the Science Board of the Collegium.[1][3]
Each year about twenty Polish students who have succeeded in passing a stringent admission procedure are granted membership of Collegium and thus receive an opportunity to follow an individually chosen path of academic study.[4][1]

Tutors

Students choose scholars with whom they would like cooperate. The scholars are then invited to become fellows of the Collegium.[4]
The list of fellows[5] includes names such as Leszek Balcerowicz and Hanna Gronkiewicz-Waltz (former Finance Ministers) in the field of economics, Bronisław Geremek and Andrzej Olechowski (former Ministers of Foreign Affairs) in the field of European studies, as well as eminent phililologists, philosophers and lawyers (e.g. Aleksander Gieysztor, Jan Błoński, Jerzy Kłoczowski, Monika Kostera, Andrzej Koźmiński, Ryszard Legutko, Philippe Lejeune, Zbigniew Pełczyński OBE, Wojciech Roszkowski, Marek Safjan, Marek Siemek, Paweł Śpiewak, Józef Tischner).

Standard Chartered PLC is a British multinational banking and financial services company headquartered in London. It operates a network of more than 1,700 branches and outlets (including subsidiaries, associates and joint ventures) across more than 70 countries and employs around 87,000 people. It is a universal bank with operations in consumer, corporate and institutional banking, and treasury services. Despite its UK base, it does not conduct retail banking in the UK, and around 90% of its profits come from Asia, Africa and the Middle East.
Standard Chartered has a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index. It had a market capitalisation of approximately £33 billion as of 23 December 2011, the 13th-largest of any company with a primary listing on the London Stock Exchange.[2] It has secondary listings on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange and theNational Stock Exchange of India. Its largest shareholder is the Government of Singapore-owned Temasek Holdings.
The Hong Kong Monetary Authority (HKMA, Chinese: 香港金融管理局 or 金管局) is Hong Kong's currency board and de facto central bank. It is a government authority founded on 1 April 1993 when the Office of the Exchange Fund and the Office of the Commissioner of Banking merged. The organisation reports directly to the Financial Secretary.[1]
The fund was established and managed originally by the Currency Ordinance in 1935. It is now named the Exchange Fund Ordinance.
Under the Exchange Fund Ordinance, the HKMA's primary objective is to ensure the stability of the Hong Kong currency, and the banking system. It is also responsible for promoting the efficiency, integrity and development of the financial system.[2]
The HKMA issues banknotes only in the denomination of ten Hong Kong dollars. The role of issuing other banknotes is delegated to the note-issuing banks in the territory, namely The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation,Standard Chartered Bank and Bank of China.
Global Banking Alliance for Women (GBA) is a non-profit organization working as a consortium of financial institutions to drive women's wealth creation globally.[1]It works with 39 financial institutions in 135 countries, providing women entrepreneurs with access to capital, markets and training. It is sponsored by international financial institutions, including International Finance Corporation, and foundations.[2] It is headquartered in Brooklyn, New York.

 Norman Chan Tak-Lam, SBS, JP (born 1954), is a Chinese banker, treasury official, and civil servant. Chan currently serves as the Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Monetary Authority, a position he has held since on 1 October 2009, following the retirement of his predecessor, Joseph Yam.[1][2] Chan previously served as Director of the Office of the Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and Regional Vice-Chairman of Standard Chartered Bank.[3]
Norman Chan graduated from Queen's College, Hong Kong, after earning a degree in the sociology from the Chinese University of Hong Kong. In 1976 Chan entered the Hong Kong Civil Service as an Administrative Officer. By 1991 he was appointed a Deputy Director of Monetary Management at the Exchange Fund of Hong Kong. In 1993 he became the Executive Director of the Hong Kong Monetary Authority at the authority's creation. Chan was promoted to vice president of the Hong Kong Monetary Authority. In December 2005, he became the Vice-Chairman of the Asian region of Standard Chartered Bank.[3] In July 2007, he was appointed as Director of the Office of the Hong Kong Chief Executive. On 17 July 2009, Financial Secretary John Tsang, announced that Norman Chan was to replace Mr. Joseph Yam as the Chief Executive of the HKMA following Joseph Yam's retirement. Chan is compensated with an annual salary of six million Hong Kong dollars.
Chartres is a patron of various organisations, including:
  • The Burgon Society for the study of academical dress (also a fellow)
  • The Georgian Group
  • The Prayer Book Society of Great Britain (ecclesiastical patron)
  • Prospex, a charity which works with young people in North London
  • St Paul's Theological Centre
  • The Tower Hamlets Friends & Neighbours, a charity which works with older people in East London
  • The Westminster Theological Centre
  • The Choral Foundation, Hampton Court Palace
Chartres was appointed Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (KCVO) in the 2009 Queen's Birthday Honours.[17] In 1999 he was elected a fellow of theSociety of Antiquaries of London (FSA).

Honours

Honorary degrees

Richard John Carew Chartres, KCVO, FSA (born 11 July 1947) became Bishop of London in 1995. He also joined the British Privy Council in 1995. Before this appointment, he was area Bishop of Stepney from 1992 to 1995 andGresham Professor of Divinity from 1987 to 1992., KCVO, FSA (born 11 July 1947) became Bishop of London in 1995. He also joined the British Privy Council in 1995. Before this appointment, he was area Bishop of Stepney from 1992 to 1995 andGresham Professor of Divinity from 1987 to 1992.
From 1987 to 1992, he was Professor of Divinity at Gresham College in London. Based on a three-part lecture series given in May 1992, he published A Brief History of Gresham College 1597–1997.[4] During the first lecture of the original lecture series he referred to the college as a "magical island like Atlantis" disappearing and re-emerging from the sea. This was a reference both to the Invisible College and Francis Bacon's New Atlantis.
Other Gresham lectures by Chartres covered prayer (Autumn 1991), the Shroud of Turin (November 1988) and theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem (December 1989) when he spoke about the Gresham Jerusalem Project.[5]
The Invisible College has been described as a precursor group to the Royal Society of London, consisting of a number ofnatural philosophers around Robert Boyle. It has been suggested that other members included prominent figures later closely concerned with the Royal Society;[2] but several groups preceded the formation of the Royal Society, and who the other members of this one were is still debated by scholars.
The concept of "invisible college" is mentioned in German Rosicrucian pamphlets in the early 17th century. Ben Jonson in England referenced the idea, related in meaning to Francis Bacon's House of Solomon, in a masque The Fortunate Isles and Their Union from 1624/5.[3] The term gained currency for the exchanges of correspondence within the Republic of Letters.[4]
Connection with Robert Boyle and the Royal Society
Much has been made of an "invisible college" in London of the later 1640s. Revisionist history has undermined earlier narratives.
In letters in 1646 and 1647, Boyle refers to "our invisible college" or "our philosophical college". The society's common theme was to acquire knowledge through experimental investigation.[5] Three dated letters are the basic documentary evidence: Boyle sent them to Isaac Marcombes (Boyle's former tutor and a Huguenot, who was then in Geneva), Francis Tallents who at that point was a fellow of Magdalene College, Cambridge,[6] and London-based Samuel Hartlib.[7]
The Hartlib Circle were a far-reaching group of correspondents linked to Hartlib, an intelligencer. They included Sir Cheney Culpeper and Benjamin Worsley who were interested, among other matters, in alchemy.[8] Worsley in 1646 was experimenting on saltpetre manufacture, and Charles Webster in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography argues that he was the "prime mover" of the Invisible College at this point: a network with aims and views close to those of the Hartlib Circle with which it overlapped.[9] Margery Purver concludes that the 1647 reference of "invisible college" was to the group around Hartlib concerned to lobby Parliament in favour of an "Office of Address" or centralised communication centre for the exchange of information.[7] Maddison suggests that the "Invisible College" might have comprised Worsley, John Dury and others with Boyle, who were interested in profiting from science (and possibly involving George Starkey).[10]
Richard S. Westfall distinguishes Hartlib's "Comenian circle" from other groups; and gives a list of "invisible college" members based on this identification. They comprise: William Petty, Boyle, Arnold Boate and Gerard Boate, Cressy Dymock, and Gabriel Platte.[11] Miles Symner may have belonged to this circle.[12]
New Atlantis is an incomplete utopian novel by Sir Francis Bacon, published in 1627. In this work, Bacon portrayed a vision of the future of human discovery and knowledge, expressing his aspirations and ideals for humankind. The novel depicts the creation of a utopian land where "generosity and enlightenment, dignity and splendour, piety and public spirit" are the commonly held qualities of the inhabitants of the mythical Bensalem. The plan and organisation of his ideal college, Salomon's House (or Solomon's House), envisioned the modern research university in both applied and pure sciences.
New Atlantis and other writings of Bacon inspired the formation of the Royal Society. Jonathan Swift parodied them both in book III of Gulliver's Travels.[citation needed]
In recent years, New Atlantis influenced B.F. Skinner's 1948 Walden Two.[citation needed]
This novel may have been Bacon's vision for a Utopian New World in North America. In it he depicted a land where there would be freedom of religion – showing a Jew treated fairly and equally in an island of Christians, but it has been debated whether this work had influenced others reforms, such as greater rights for women, the abolition of slavery, elimination of debtors' prisons, separation of church and state, and freedom of political expression,[7][8][9][10] although there is no hint of these reforms in The New Atlantis itself. His propositions of legal reform (which were not established in his lifetime), though, are considered to have been one of the influences behind the Napoleonic Code,[11] and therefore could show some resemblance with or influence in the drafting of other liberal constitutions that came in the centuries after Bacon's lifetime, such as the American Constitution.

It is also believed by the Rosicrucian organisation AMORC, that Bacon would have influenced a settlement of mystics in North America, stating that his work "The New Atlantis" inspired a colony of Rosicrucians led by Johannes Kelpius, to journey across the Atlantic Ocean in a chartered vessel called Sarah Mariah, and move on to Pennsylvania in late 17th century. According to their claims, these Rosicrucian communities "made valuable contributions to the newly emerging American culture in the fields of printing, philosophy, the sciences and arts".[17]Francis Bacon played a leading role in creating the English colonies, especially in Virginia, the Carolinas, and Newfoundlandin northeastern Canada. His government report on "The Virginia Colony" was submitted in 1609. In 1610 Bacon and his associates received a charter from the king to form the Tresurer and the Companye of Adventurers and planter of the Cittye of London and Bristoll for the Collonye or plantacon in Newfoundland[12] and sent John Guy to found a colony there. In 1910 Newfoundland issued a postage stamp to commemorate Bacon's role in establishing the province. The stamp describes Bacon as "the guiding spirit in colonization scheme" of 1610.[13] Moreover, some scholars believe he was largely responsible for the drafting, in 1609 and 1612, of two charters of government for the Virginia Colony.[14] Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States and author of the Declaration of Independence, wrote: "Bacon, Locke and Newton. I consider them as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures which have been raised in the Physical and Moral sciences".[15] Historian and biographer William Hepworth Dixon considered that Bacon's name could be included in the list of Founders of the United States of America.[16]

Bensalem's Conversion to Christianity[edit]

Early in the story, the governor of the House of Strangers relates the incredible circumstances that introduced Christianity to the Island:
“About twenty years after the ascension of our Saviour it came to pass [c. A.D. 50], that there was seen by the people of Renfusa (a city upon the eastern coast of our island, within sight, the night was cloudy and calm), as it might be some mile in the sea, a great pillar of light; not sharp, but in form of a column, or cylinder, rising from the sea, a great way up toward heaven; and on the top of it was seen a large cross of light, more bright and resplendent than the body of the pillar. Upon which so strange a spectacle, the people of the city gathered apace together upon the sands, to wonder; and so after put themselves into a number of small boats to go nearer to this marvellous sight. But when the boats were come within about sixty yards of the pillar, they found themselves all bound, and could go no further, yet so as they might move to go about, but might not approach nearer; so as the boats stood all as in a theatre, beholding this light, as a heavenly sign. It so fell out that there was in one of the boats one of the wise men of the Society of Saloman's House (which house, or college, my good brethren, is the very eye of this kingdom), who having awhile attentively and devoutly viewed and contemplated this pillar and cross, fell down upon his face; and then raised himself upon his knees, and lifting up his hands to heaven, made his prayers in this manner:
"'Lord God of heaven and earth; thou hast vouchsafed of thy grace, to those of our order to know thy works of creation, and true secrets of them; and to discern, as far as appertaineth to the generations of men, between divine miracles, works of nature, works of art and impostures, and illusions of all sorts. I do here acknowledge and testify before this people that the thing we now see before our eyes is thy finger, and a true miracle. And forasmuch as we learn in our books that thou never workest miracles, but to a divine and excellent end (for the laws of nature are thine own laws, and thou exceedest them not but upon great cause), we most humbly beseech thee to prosper this great sign, and to give us the interpretation and use of it in mercy; which thou dost in some part secretly promise, by sending it unto us.'
“When he had made his prayer he presently found the boat he was in movable and unbound; whereas all the rest remained still fast; and taking that for an assurance of leave to approach, he caused the boat to be softly and with silence rowed toward the pillar; but ere he came near it, the pillar and cross of light broke up, and cast itself abroad, as it were, into a firmament of many stars, which also vanished soon after, and there was nothing left to be seen but a small ark or chest of cedar, dry and not wet at all with water, though it swam; and in the fore end of it, which was toward him, grew a small green branch of palm; and when the wise man had taken it with all reverence into his boat, it opened of itself, and there were found in it a book and a letter, both written in fine parchment, and wrapped in sindons of linen. The book contained all the canonical books of the Old and New Testament, according as you have them (for we know well what the churches with you receive), and the Apocalypse itself; and some other books of the New Testament, which were not at that time written, were nevertheless in the book. And for the letter, it was in these words:
"'I, Bartholomew, a servant of the Highest, and apostle of Jesus Christ, was warned by an angel that appeared to me in a vision of glory, that I should commit this ark to the floods of the sea. Therefore I do testify and declare unto that people where God shall ordain this ark to come to land, that in the same day is come unto them salvation and peace, and good-will from the Father, and from the Lord Jesus.'
"There was also in both these writings, as well the book as the letter, wrought a great miracle, conform to that of the apostles, in the original gift of tongues. For there being at that time, in this land, Hebrews, Persians, and Indians, besides the natives, everyone read upon the book and letter, as if they had been written in his own language. And thus was this land saved from infidelity (as the remain of the old world was from water) by an ark, through the apostolical and miraculous evangelism of St. Bartholomew." And here he paused, and a messenger came and called him forth from us. So this was all that passed in that conference.."
The traditional date for the writing of St. John's Apocalypse (the Book of Revelation) is the end of the 1st century AD. It is not only the presence of the full canon of Scripture long before it was completed or compiled, but also the all-too-convenient proximity of the scientist who will attest to its miraculous nature of this wonder that lends the story an air of incredibility.[2]
Later the Father of Salomon's House reveals the institution's skill at creating illusions of light:
"We represent also all multiplications of light, which we carry to great distance, and make so sharp as to discern small points and lines. Also all colorations of light: all delusions and deceits of the sight, in figures, magnitudes, motions, colors; all demonstrations of shadows. We find also divers means, yet unknown to you, of producing of light, originally from divers bodies."
He also boasts about their ability to fake miracles:
"And surely you will easily believe that we, that have so many things truly natural which induce admiration, could in a world of particulars deceive the senses if we would disguise those things, and labor to make them more miraculous."
Renaker points out the Latin of the second passage is stronger and literally translates to "we could impose on men's senses an infinite number of things if we wanted to present these things as, and exalt them into, a miracle."[3]
The skill of creating illusions coupled with the incredibility of the story of the origin of Bensalem's Christianity makes it seem that Bacon was intimating that the light show (or at least the story of its occurrence) was an invention of Salomon's House.[3]

Who Rules Bensalem?[edit]

The Father of Salomon's House reveals that members of that institution decide on their own which of their discoveries to keep secret, even from the State:
"And this we do also: we have consultations, which of the inventions and experiences which we have discovered shall be published, and which not; and take all an oath of secrecy for the concealing of those which we think fit to keep secret; though some of those we do reveal sometime to the State, and some not."
This would seem to imply that the State does not hold the monopoly on authority and that Salomon's House must in some sense be superior to the State.
In the introduction to the critical edition of New Atlantis, Jerry Weinberger notes that Joabin is the only contemporary character (i.e., living at the time of the story) described as wise—and wise in matters of government and rule at that. Weinberger speculates that Joabin may be the actual ruler of Bensalem.[4] On the other hand, prejudice against Jews was widespread in his time, so the possibility cannot be excluded that Bacon was calling Joabin wise for the same reason that he felt the need elsewhere to call him "the good Jew": to make clear that Joabin's character was benign.

Social Ritual of the Bensalemites[edit]

While Bacon appears concerned with the House of Salomon, a portion of the narrative describes the social practices of the Bensalemites, particularly those surrounding courtship and family life. An example of these rituals is the Adam and Eve pools. Here betrothed send surrogates to observe the other bathing to discover any deformities. Here Bacon alludes to Sir Thomas More’sUtopia (1516), where More describes a similar ritual. However, the crucial difference is rather than surrogates, the young couple observes the other naked. Bacon’s character Joabin remarks on this difference: “I have read in a book of one of your men, of a Feigned Commonwealth, where the married couple are permitted, before they contract, to see one another naked.”[5]
The Hartlib Circle was the correspondence network set up in Western and Central Europe by Samuel Hartlib, an intelligencer based in London, and his associates, in the period 1630 to 1660. Hartlib worked closely with John Dury, an itinerant figure who worked to bring Protestants together.

Structure[edit]

J. T. Young writes:[1]
At its nexus, it was an association of personal friends. Hartlib and Dury were the two key figures: Comenius, despite their best efforts, always remained a cause they were supporting rather than a fellow co-ordinator. Around them were Hübner, Haak, Pell, Moriaen, Rulise, Hotton and Appelius, later to be joined by Sadler, Culpeper, Worsley, Boyle and Clodius. But as soon as one looks any further than this from the centre, the lines of communication begin to branch and cross, threading their way into the entire intellectual community of Europe and America. It is a circle with a definable centre but an almost infinitely extendable periphery.
Examples given of the "periphery" are John Winthrop and Balthazar Gerbier.[2]

Themes[edit]

Education[edit]

Educational reform was topical, and central to the pansophist programme. Hartlib compiled a list of "advisers", and updated it. It included Jeremy Collier, Dury,Thomas Horne, Marchamont Nedham, John Pell, William Rand, Christian Ravius, Israel Tonge, and Moses Wall.[18][19] The staff proposed for Durham College was influenced by the Circle's lobbying. John Hall was another associate[20] who wrote on education. In the period 1648–50 many works on education appeared from Circle authors (Dury, Dymock, Hall, Cyprian Kinner, Petty, George Snell, and Worsley).[21]
A letter from Hartlib to John Milton prompted the tract Of Education (1644), subtitled To Master Samuel Hartlib. But Milton's ideas were quite some way from those of the Comenians.[22]

The problem of the "Invisible College"[edit]

For more details on this topic, see Invisible College.
Robert Boyle referred a few times in his correspondence to the 'Invisible College'. Scholarly attention has been paid to identifying this shadowy group. The social picture is not simplistic, since en masse Hartlib's contacts had fingers in every pie.
Margery Purver concluded that the Invisible College coincided with the Hartlib-led lobbyists, those who were promoting to the Parliament the concept of an Office of Address.[23] The effective lifetime of this idea has been pinned down to the period 1647 to 1653, and as a second wave of speculation on the ideal society, after Comenius left England.[24]
In the later Interregnum the "Invisible College" might refer to a group meeting in Gresham College.[25] According to Christopher Hill, however, the 1645 group (the Gresham College club that was convened from 1645 by Theodore Haak, certainly a Hartlibian) was distinct from the Comenian Invisible College.[26] Lady Katherine Ranelagh, who was Boyle's sister, had a London salon during the 1650s, much frequented by virtuosi associated with Hartlib.[27]

Projects[edit]

Office of Address[edit]

One of Hartlib's projects, a variant on Salomon's House that had more of a public face, was the "Office of Address" — he envisaged an office in every town where somebody might go to find things out. This might well be compatible with Baconian ideas, and a related public office scheme was mooted under James I (by Arthur Gorges and Walter Cope).[28] But the immediate inspiration was Théophraste Renaudot and his Paris bureau d'adresse.[29] For example, at a practical level, Hartlib thought people could advertise job vacancies there — and prospective employees would be able to find work. At a more studious level, Hartlib wanted academics to pool their knowledge so that the Office could act as a living and growing form of encyclopedia, in which people could keep adding new information.
The Office of address idea was promoted by Considerations tending to the happy Accomplishment of Englands Reformation in Church and State (1647), written by Hartlib and Dury, a pamphlet also including an ambitious tiered system of educational reform.[30] There was a limited implementation, by Henry Robinson, in 1650.[31]

Foundation of the Royal Society[edit]

In 1660 Hartlib was at work writing to John Evelyn, an important broker of the royal charter for the eventual Royal Society. He was, however, not promoting a purist Baconian model, but an "Antilia". This was the name chosen by Johann Valentin Andreae for a more hermetic and utopian fellowship. The proposal, which conformed to Comenian ideas as more compatible with pansophia or universal wisdom, was in effect decisively rejected. Hartlib was relying on a plan of Bengt Skytte, a son ofJohan Skytte and knighted by Charles I,[32] and the move was away from Bacon's clearer emphasis on reforming the natural sciences. Despite some critical voices, the Hartlib-Comenius trend was written out of the Royal Society from the beginning. Hartlib himself died shortly after the Society was set up.[33]

Eclectic attitudes and associations[edit]

Hartlib was noted as a follower of Francis Bacon and Comenius, but his background in the German academies of the period gave him a broad view of other methods and approaches, including those of Petrus Ramus, Bartholomäus Keckermann, and Jacobus Acontius.[34] Further, the Hartlib Circle was tolerant of hermetic ideas; Hartlib himself had an interest in sigils and astrology.[35] Boyle too attempted to straddle the opening divide between experimental chemistry and alchemy, by treating the latter in a less esoteric way; he did distance himself to an extent from the Hartlib group on moving to Oxford around 1655.[36]
Both Boyle and William Petty became more attached to a third or fourth loose association, the group around John Wilkins, at this period, now referred to as theOxford Philosophical Club. Wilkins was to be the founding Secretary of the Royal Society.[37]
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